The First Computer Charles Babbages Analytical Engine

The modern computer was born out of the urgent necessity after the Second World War to face the challenge of Nazism  through innovation. But the first iteration of the computer  as we now understand it came much earlier when, in the 1830s, an inventor named Charles Babbage designed a device called the Analytical Engine. Who Was Charles Babbage?   Born in 1791 to an English banker and his wife, Charles Babbage (1791–1871) became fascinated by math at an early age, teaching himself algebra and reading widely on continental mathematics. When in 1811, he went to Cambridge to study, he discovered that his tutors were deficient in the new mathematical landscape, and that, in fact, he already knew more than they did. As a result, he took off on his own to found the Analytical Society in 1812, which would help transform the field of math in Britain. He became a Royal Society member in 1816  and was a co-founder of several other societies. At one stage he was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, although he resigned this to work on his engines. An inventor, he was at the forefront of British technology and helped create Britain’s modern postal service, a cowcatcher for trains, and other tools.   The Difference Engine Babbage was a founding member of Britain’s Royal Astronomical Society, and he soon saw opportunities for innovation in this field. Astronomers had to make lengthy, difficult, and time-consuming calculations that could be riddled with errors. When these tables were being used in high stakes situations, such as for navigation logarithms, the errors could prove fatal. In response, Babbage hoped to create an automatic device that would produce flawless tables. In 1822, he wrote to the Society’s president, Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829), to express this hope. He followed this up with a paper, on the Theoretical Principles of Machinery for Calculating Tables, which won the first Society gold medal in 1823. Babbage had decided to try and build a Difference Engine. When Babbage approached the British government for funding, they gave him what was one of the globe’s first government grants for technology. Babbage spent this money to hire one of the best machinists he could find to make the parts: Joseph Clement (1779–1844). And there would be a lot of parts: 25,000 were planned. In 1830, Babbage decided to relocate, creating a workshop that was immune to fire in an area that was free from dust on his own property. Construction ceased in 1833, when Clement refused to continue without advance payment. However, Babbage was not a politician; he lacked the ability to smooth relationships with successive governments, and, instead, alienated people with his impatient demeanor. By this time the government had spent  £17,500, no more was coming, and Babbage had only one-seventh of the calculating unit finished. But even in this reduced and nearly hopeless state, the machine was at the cutting edge of world technology. Difference Engine #2 Babbage wasnt going to give up so quickly. In a world where calculations were usually carried to no more than six figures, Babbage aimed to produce over 20, and the resulting Engine 2 would only need 8,000 parts. His Difference Engine used decimal figures (0–9)—rather than the binary ‘bits’ that Germany’s Gottfried von Leibniz (1646–1716) preferred—and they would be set out on cogs/wheels that interlinked to build up calculations. But the Engine was designed to do more than mimic an abacus: it could operate on complex problems using a series of calculations  and could store results within itself for later use, as well as stamp the result onto a metal output. Although it could still only run one operation at once, it was far beyond any other computing device the world had ever seen. Unfortunately for Babbage, he never finished the Difference Engine. Without any further government grants, his funding ran out. In 1854, a Swedish printer called George Scheutz (1785–1873) used Babbage’s ideas to create a functioning machine that did produce tables of great accuracy. However, they had omitted security features and it tended to break down, and, consequently, the machine failed to make an impact. In 1991, researchers at the London’s Science Museum, where Babbages records and trials kept, created a Difference Engine 2 to the original design after six years of work. DE2 used around 4,000 parts  and weighed just over three tons. The matching printer was completed in 2000, and had as many parts again, although a slightly smaller weight of 2.5 tons. More importantly, it worked. The Analytical Engine During his lifetime, Babbage was accused of being more interested in the theory and cutting edge of innovation than actually producing the tables the government was paying him to create. This wasn’t exactly unfair, because by the time the funding for the Difference Engine had evaporated, Babbage had come up with a new idea: the Analytical Engine. This was a massive step beyond the Difference Engine: it was a general-purpose device that could compute many different problems. It was to be digital, automatic, mechanical, and controlled by variable programs. In short, it would solve any calculation you wished. It would be the first computer.   The Analytical Engine had four parts: A mill, which was the section that did the calculations (essentially the CPU)The store, where the information was kept recorded (essentially the memory)The reader, which would allow data to be entered using punched cards (essentially the keyboard)The printer The punch cards were modeled on those developed for the Jacquard loom  and would allow the machine a greater flexibility than anything ever invented to do calculations. Babbage had grand ambitions for the device, and the store was supposed to hold 1,050 digit numbers. It would have a built-in ability to weigh up data and process instructions out of order if necessary. It would be steam-driven, made of brass, and require a trained operator/driver. Babbage was aided by Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), daughter of the British poet Lord Byron and one of the few women of the era with an education in mathematics. Babbage greatly admired her published translation of a French article on Babbages work, which included her voluminous notes. The Engine was beyond what Babbage could afford and maybe what technology could then produce, but the government had grown exasperated with Babbage and funding was not forthcoming. Babbage continued to work on the project until he died in 1871, by many accounts an embittered man who felt more public funds should be directed towards the advancement of science. It might not have been finished, but the Analytical Engine was a breakthrough in imagination, if not practicality. Babbage’s engines were forgotten, and supporters had to struggle to keep him well regarded; some members of the press found it easier to mock. When computers were invented in the twentieth century, the inventors did not use Babbage’s plans or ideas, and it was only in the seventies that his work was fully understood. Computers Today It took over a century, but modern computers have exceeded the power of the Analytical Engine. Now experts have created a program that replicates the abilities of the Engine, so you can try it yourself. Sources and Further Reading Bromley, A. G. Charles Babbages Analytical Engine, 1838. Annals of the History of Computing 4.3 (1982): 196–217. Cook, Simon. Minds, Machines and Economic Agents: Cambridge Receptions of Boole and Babbage. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 36.2 (2005): 331–50. Crowley, Mary L. The Difference in Babbages Difference Engine. The Mathematics Teacher 78.5 (1985): 366–54. Hyman, Anthony. Charles Babbage, Pioneer of the Computer. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982. Lindgren, Michael. Glory and Failure:  The Difference Engines of Johann Mà ¼ller, Charles Babbage, and Georg and Edvard Scheutz. Trans. McKay, Craig G. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1990.

Utilitarianism Vs. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism,...

Reading through the three chapters, what grabbed my attention most was the one on Utilitarianism. I will have some comments throughout this journal from Chapter 4 (egoism, altruism, and social contract) and 6 (Deontological Ethics and Immanuel Kant) because they have a big influence on this chapter. Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that relies on the comparison of the overall happiness produced for everyone. It also advocates the precedence of consequence in the judgment of an action. On the former note, I believe that utilitarianism highly opposes secularism. Utilitarianism demands that we should undergo a choice that is directly dependent on producing a greater happiness for more people. However, it is right to question why I’m†¦show more content†¦A utilitarian may thus give a person a choice to adhere to the rules and share these benefits or fly solo and start his/her own civilization from zero. I would prefer the former over the latter. My main idea, however, is that utilitarianism demolishes the value of personal liberty. It is therefore ironic for me that some utilitarian philosophers value liberty even though their views are quite the opposite. Speaking of utilitarian philosophers, two of the influential philosophers that supported utilitarianism were Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. I was amazed that a mathematical procedure was suggested by utilitarian philosophers in order to calculate the right ethical solution for general problems. Amount of happiness, intensity, duration, fruitfulness, and likelihood were the guidelines for determining the valid net happiness. I was interested in the likelihood aspect of this proposal. How can we be certain that pleasure can be delivered to certain groups of people as it was initially planned. For instance, let’s say I had a leisure saving of about 5000 dollars. Instead of taking my family on a vacation to Thailand and providing a decent amount of happiness for a week, I decided to bu y a used Audi car to my wife in hopes of providing more happiness for coming few years. It may turn out to be the correct decision if my wife cherishes this gift every day as she uses it instead of taking the bus.Show MoreRelated2074 Final Notes Essay6510 Words   |  27 PagesBusiness Ethics Make Sense? Adam Smith: we are motivated by self interest, and through the invisible hand comes free market competition. This naturally to social utility. / Butcher-brewer-baker quote demonstrates that the exchange of goods if for the benefit of both parties, without no ethics involved in the exchange. / Though competition, comes social harmony and utility. 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Kant vs. Hegel Free Essays

Leona Take LARS 3155 10 February 2013 Kant and Hegel Hegel’s concept of the â€Å"Absolute Idea† claims that there is a universal and ideal standard that is continuously being revealed throughout history, in various forms of human expression. The Absolute Idea can be interpreted as God, nature, spirit, or reality. With art, there is no such thing as â€Å"Art for Art’s sake† because art is a manifestation of the unfolding of the Absolute Idea. We will write a custom essay sample on Kant vs. Hegel or any similar topic only for you Order Now In Hegel’s Art History, the progression of art is always moving closer to ultimate reality, because spiritual realization is teleological. The Absolute is fully realized when form and content are harmonious and concrete in their depiction of spirit and man. Beauty is dependent upon these things. For Hegel, the classical period is characterized by the depiction of ideal beauty in the perfect human body in ancient Greek sculpture. However, the concreteness of the human body is later seen as limited for not representing spirit and imagination in a more abstract form. Therefore, Hegel’s ideal of beauty is ever changing according to Art’s development in history, and his terms. In other words, Hegel calls the shots. In contrast to Hegel, Kant’s philosophy of art was a deliberate attempt to remove personal subjectivity. Like Hegel, Kant did believe there was a universal beauty, or Absolute of something, except Kant did not have any references to measure this by. For Kant, we can only come to know what is really beautiful when one has no agenda, concept, or comparison to measure the object with. From Kant’s perspective, Hegel is attached to all of these things, and therefore he can not really know beauty outside of his own perception. It is an intuitive inner knowing, versus a cognitive knowing. This is significantly different from Hegel’s ideal of beauty, since knowing what is really beautiful can never be answered concretely, but rather intuitively. How to cite Kant vs. Hegel, Papers

Demographic change free essay sample

Empirical evidence suggests that technological change or the so-called green revolution in agriculture is different least developed countries LDS has greatly offset the effect of diminishing return in agriculture and spectra of food problem and it is aftermath (hunger, famine) is most of these countries has vertically vanished so must not new population growth badly affects economic development. Based on Indian experience, Coale and Hoover (1012) drew attention to the likely adverse effect of population growth and capital formation had the following effects: The age dependency, the capital swallowing effect and the instrument direction effect. If said that a rapid population growth causes an increase in dependency ratio, a high ratio of non-working population. When the number of the depending ration or consumer (non-producers) to producers increases they occur a decreasing from peoples income for saving to consumption and fall in per income. But ant Malthusian talk in a different vein. We will write a custom essay sample on Demographic change or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Also, rapid population growth causes an increase independence ratio, a high ratio of the non-working population to working wage people active population. When the number of dependents or ration of a consumer ( non-producer) to producer increase, there occurs of a diversion of income from saving to consumption and fall in per capita income. But Malthusian talk in a different vein. They argue that many young children contribute directly to the parent income by working in form and off form sector. Further, additional to multis in low-income families tend to encourage people to work more. They may children themselves contribute to household and saving can be negligible or positive. The issue needs to be settled by political investigationMoreover, the capital challenging effects state that a rapid population growth lower the ratio of capital to labor or workforce, thus works with less capital and consequently the poor rate of saving. This effect then reduces the productively of labor, as children remain in engaged in productive work, the family may experiences an increase in saving. Under the circumstance, the capital shallowing effect remains inoperative. High economic growth is accompanied by a general high saving rather in many developing countries. The investment diversion effect state that because of rapid population growth a countrys is scarce get directed away to the so-called unproductive sector of health, education, and social services to the more productive growth-oriented sector. This logic assumes that expenditure on human capital is unproductive, education and health people are new as me of essential ingredients of economic development. Indeed there is a high return for investment in human capital.However, Malthusian is convinced population growth badly affects food surplus, to them the chronic food problem experienced by many poor developing economies is often attributed to the rapid population. It is because of natural limits. In agriculture preparation growth involve out stake food supply output thereby leading to famine, hunger, malnutrition. But the evidence tells the different story. Because of the introduction of the green revolution technology in agriculture yield, has increased to such extent that many countries including Indian have now been exporting food grains. Unfortunately the present global world is highly unequally. We see an abnormally high level of malnourished children, starvation and famine occur seasonally visit in many countries.The question of unemployment and underemployment has assumed serious proportion particularly in less developed countries because of rapid population growth, but whether population growth is responsible for unemployment problem cannot be affirmed since no such statistic sheet correction is observed. In fact it is the technology that determine the absorption of the employment labor force. The experiences of Korea and Taiwan tells that economic development in their countries preceded successfully despite high population growth.Also Neo-Malthusian argue that excessive population growth and massive poverty in less developed c ountries have greatly damaged the ecological balance by deforestation and land degradation. Consequently these countries suffer badly from a variety of environmental hazards, such hazards made by developed countries that are to be condemned outright for destroying ecological balance. But today the debate has shifted from population pressure to the climate change and environment perceived as a great threat to humanity. The current ecological crisis is caused by human economic activity or anthropogenic. The way an economy is organized is rather inherently suicidal REFERENCES Masanja, G.F. (2017) Changing demographic and the development process of Tanzania (1st ed). Tabora Tanzania. MP book department. .